Inflation in Iran's economy over recent decades has become one of the most persistent and complex macroeconomic challenges—a challenge that has not only disrupted economic stability but has also subjected household decision-making, firm behavior, and policy formulation to serious uncertainty. Under such circumstances, examining the role and effectiveness of monetary policy tools in controlling inflation becomes particularly important. This topic was chosen because, despite the widespread use of instruments such as the discount rate, the legal reserve requirement ratio, and open market operations, inflation behavior in Iran remains unpredictable, time-varying, and dependent on structural shocks. On the other hand, many domestic studies have examined the effect of monetary policy as fixed and linear, while empirical evidence suggests that the effectiveness of monetary policy changes across different inflationary periods and may even exhibit reverse behavior at high inflation levels. This very issue highlights the necessity of employing more advanced models such as TVP?SVAR and quantile regression to accurately analyze the time dynamics and heterogeneity of these effects. Therefore, this research has been conducted with the aim of investigating the time-varying effects of monetary policy instruments on inflation and analyzing the heterogeneity of these effects across different inflation levels—in order to determine during which periods each instrument has been effective, during which periods its impact has weakened, and how the combination of instruments can be used for sustainable inflation control.

As one of the most oil-dependent economies, Iraq has long faced chronic budget deficits and structural inflation. This study aims to investigate the effect of the budget deficit on inflation in Iraq over the period 2004–2024, using the ARDL model. The variables include inflation, budget deficit, liquidity, exchange rate, GDP, and oil revenues.   

   Abstract: In this study we have been trying to examine the asymmetric effect of renewable energy consumption and trade openness and economic growth on carbon dioxide emission and ecological footprint in chosen developing and developed countries with quantile on quantile regression analysis, we used panel data of ten developed and developing countries in twenty seven years. In this study we create for models:   model 1: examine the asymmetric effect of renewable energy consumption and trade openness and economic growth on carbon dioxide emission in five developing countries.   model2: examine the asymmetric effect of renewable energy consumption and trade openness and economic growth on ecological footprint in five developing countries. Model3: examine the asymmetric effect of renewable energy consumption and trade openness and economic growth on carbon dioxide emission in five developed countries. Model4:   examine the asymmetric effect of renewable energy consumption and trade openness and economic growth on ecological footprint in five developed countries. The result showed that in model1 most of the quantiles determined the negative impact of renewable energy consumption on carbon emission although in few quantiles positive impact and no impact was indicated. The result showed that in model1 most of the quantiles determined the positive impact of trade openness on carbon emission. The result showed that in model1 most of the quantiles determined the positive impact of economic growth on carbon emission. The result showed that in model2 most of the quantiles determined the negative impact of renewable energy consumption on ecological footprint is asymmetric which means this impact is positive in half of the quantiles and negative in the other half. The result showed that in mode2 most of the quantiles determined the positive impact of trade openness on carbon emission although in few quantiles negative impact was indicated.   The result showed that in model2 most of the quantiles determined the negative impact of economic growth on ecological footprint is asymmetric which means this impact is positive in half of the quantiles and negative in the other half. The result showed that in model3 most of the quantiles determined the negative impact of renewable energy consumption on carbon emission is asymmetric which means this impact is positive in half of the quantiles and negative in the other half.    The result showed that in model3 most of the quantiles determined the positive impact of trade openness on carbon emission although in few quantiles no impact was indicated. The result showed that in model3 most of the quantiles determined the negative impact of economic growth on carbon emission is asymmetric which means this impact is positive in half of the quantiles and negative in the other half. The result showed that in model4 most of the quantiles determined the negative impact of renewable energy consumption on ecological foot print is asymmetric which means this impact is positive in half of the quantiles and negative in the other half. The result showed that in model4 most of the quantiles determined the positive impact of trade openness on ecological foot print although in few quantiles negative impact and no impact was indicated. The result showed that in model4 most of the quantiles determined the positive impact of economic growth on ecological foot print.

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